Roman Imperial Art

In 44 B.C. on the Ides of March, Julius Caesar was assassinated because he had assumed the role of dictator -- which Romans did not want. What followed was a period of civil war that lasted for thirteen years. The fighting ended when Octavian (a.k.a. Caesar Augustus -- the nephew of Julius Caesar) fought the Egyptians (then under Mark Antony and Cleopatra) and won. The decisive battle was “The Battle of Actium” in northwestern Greece. By the way, what did the Egyptian leaders do? Like the Gauls at Pergamon, they committed suicide rather than come under the reign of the Romans.

The Imperial Period is marked by the fact that Augustus then claimed the role of princeps or “first among equals.” There were still senators and 2 consuls, but after 31 B.C. there is imperial control of the Roman army.

Augustus, therefore, was the first Roman emperor. There were hundreds of statues were made of Augustus. Although he lived to be 78, he never aged in his portraits. His youthfulness and anastole were derived from Alexander the Great.

This sculpture — the Augustus of Prima Porta — was probably executed after Augustus died in 14 A.D. We know that it was made for Livia, Augustus’s wife.

This portrait is different from Roman Republication portraiture. We see not just a portrait head, but rather a full-length body with the right hand extended. This is a gesture that would have been readily understood as a “speaking hand.” He is shown as an orator and adopts a contrapposto pose. The artist used the canon of Polykleitos (as exemplified by the Doryphoros), which implied that Augustus is the ideal man. Also notice that the head has no personality. It is idealized, with no lines or furrows. It takes its inspiration from Classical Greek sculpture.

Although the Augustus of Prima Porta makes some reference to the tradition of Classical Greek sculpture, there are several important breaks with that tradition. Augustus is not an heroic nude — he is clothed and, in fact, wears armor. We also see the deliberate use of propaganda and symbols of leadership. Augustus is shown with larger feet — which previously had been reserved for the gods — so the Emperor was depicted as a god. Because statue is made of stone, it required support, and the sculptor used a cupid and dolphin. However, these choices were also symbolically significant. The Julian Clan adopted Augustus. They claimed to be descended from Venus, a goddess who was born from the foam of the sea, and Venus’s son is Cupid. Thus, the stone support was also a symbol of the Emperor's godly heritage.

Now, let's turn to the breast plate worn by Augustus. Note that it is covered with the figures in relief:

Taken together, these imply a cosmic setting. In other words, the pagan symbols show that the emperor's influence is universal.

The Standard of the Roman Legion had been captured by the Parthians. In the center of the breast plate, the Standard is being returned to the Romans. This was a military symbol. Tiberius (Augustus’ successor) received the standard.

Interestingly, the back of the sculpture was never finished; it was meant to stand in a niche.

The Altar of Augustan Peace is housed within this elaborate marble enclosure. It was originally set up by 9 B.C. and was intended to celebrate the fact that Augustus returned from the Provinces (Spain and Gaul), having successfully established peace after many years of war. At some point the altar was disassembled. However, during World War II, it was reconstructed by Mussolini as part of his own symbolic program.

In Rome, an altar would have been separated by a fence made of leaves and boughs. Notice that the lower half of this enclosure is carved with swirling vines. This is a marble recreation of what was traditionally made out of wood. Originally, the marble was colored. The upper zone of the marble enclosure contains figural relief sculptures. On the east and west sides, which are doors, are mythological scenes. On the north and south side is a procession of the imperial family.

Aeneas was honored as an ancestor of the Romans. Here, he is sacrificing a pig to the Penates (the local deities). This is an allegorical presentation of the history of the founding of Rome. Augustus saw himself as re-founding Rome — renewed.

The top, we see a large woman holding two babies. A number of animals, including a cow, also appear in the composition. Based on these attributes, she is has been identified as a personification of the earth (Tellus or Mother Earth; although Gardner indicates that there are other interpretations). Tellus is a fertility goddess, and her presence on this altar suggests the natural abundance that would resulted from peace. Beside her is a woman riding on a swan (on our left) and a woman riding on an alligator (on our right). These figures can be interpreted as a personification of the air and a personification of the waters. They expand the message of peace from the land to the entire earthly domain.

On the North Side was the Procession of Senators and Priests. When Augustus returned from the Provinces, he met these officials. This procession leads to the imperial family.

This procession of the royal family celebrates the inauguration of this monument. Note that this Roman composition is a conscious emulation of Greek art — specifically the Panathenaic Festival processions on the Parthenon.

Here, in the Roman relief, we see children, which we did not see in Greek friezes. During this period, Augustus was concerned about the low birthrate among the Roman nobility. He enacted a series of laws promoting marriage, marital fidelity, and raising children. The presence of children in this frieze underscores his political message.

Augustus bragged that he rebuilt Rome. He found it as city of timber and left it as a city of marble. Yet there is tension with Caesar Augustus between his power and the appearance of the Republic as a viable system. Julius Caesar was assassinated as a despotic ruler — he seems to have gone too far. But Augustus is very careful — he builds great public works, but never a grand palace. His texts “Things I did” are carved as far as Asia Minor. His statues appear everyone — influencing public opinion.

Not only was Rome rebuilt during the period of Augustus, but there were significant buildings erected in the provinces as well. This temple is located in Nîmes, in Southern France — then part of the Roman empire under Pax Romana.

Even though concrete became the preferred building material of the Roman empire, there were still some structures that were self-consciously designed in emulation of Greek architecture. The Maison Carrée is larger than the temple of Fortuna Virilis, but one can see the continuation of the Roman temple tradition into the Roman imperial period. It is a Corinthian pseudo-peripertal temple. Note the axial design, high podium, front staircase, deep porch (or portico), and engaged columns along the cella wall. Is particularly famous because it had an important influence on Federal architecture in the United States.

Thomas Jefferson, Virginia State Capitol, Richmond, Virginia, 1785-9

After the Revolutionary War, Thomas Jefferson was made the American minister to France. In 1785, he went to live in Paris. Jefferson also traveled through France and in Nîmes he saw the Maison Carrée, a Roman temple. At the time, however, Jefferson thought it was a Greek temple. [Note that a Greek temple would have free-standing columns all the way around, not have a specified entranced and not use the Corinthian order]. Because the Greeks were adherents of the democratic system of government, Jefferson thought that this temple would be a good model for the Virginia State Capitol. Jefferson transformed the Maison Carrée into a government building for the State of Virginia.

Pont du Gard, Nimes, France, ca. 16 B.C.

This is a slightly earlier project under Caesar Augustus — a large aqueduct-bridge. "Pont du Gard" means "Bridge of the Gard River." This construction exploits the round-headed arch. Each of the large arches is 82 feet wide. There are three small arches over each of the large arches — the placement of the arches within each tier is not random. The construction is based on un-cemented stone blocks.

One of the major benefits of the Roman empire to the citizens of Rome was the distribution of food and the establishment of police and firefighters. Along these lines, the Roman government provided water and sanitation for its citizens. Water supply was especially important for urban populations. The water resources were located in various mountains and were brought to the Roman cities through constructed concrete channels. The flow was driven entirely by gravity — no pumps were used. This aqueduct provided 100 gallons of water a day for each citizen of Nîmes — the water source was ~30 miles away from the city.

In the weeks ahead, we will be looking at Early Christian art. At this point, I would like to remind you that Jesus of Nazareth was born during the reign of Caesar Augustus. It is believed he was born in Nazareth around 4 B.C., which was located in the northern part of what is now Israel. He was born poor, obscure, with no pretenses towards royalty. Within a decade of Jesus’s birth, this region became the Roman province of Judea, and as such was under direct imperial control. It was close to Sepharus, a wealthy Roman city.

Jesus was born Jewish and, today, it appears that his teachings were directed towards reforming the practice of Judaism within the Roman empire.

Note that there were no state religions in Rome. Many beliefs and mystery cults were tolerated, including practitioners of magic and cults of Dionysus. At the same time, most Roman citizens were Pagan. They made ritual sacrifices according to the Pagan calendar and appealed to various gods at different times. And they recognized Caesar Augustus to be the “son of god.”

Jesus died around 30 A.D. It is now believed that he was seen as a threat to Pax Romana. In a climate where political challenges received a quick and violent response, Jesus was crucified by the Romans.

Nero was one of Augustus’s successors, and he reigned from 54-68 A.D. He was an emperor of the Early Empire. In the years following the death of Jesus, his various disciples tried to make sense out of what had happened. The earliest years after the crucifixion saw the emergence of the “Jesus Movement.” One of the earliest and most vocal advocates was Paul — who advocated the “New Israel” — a sect that said that there was no longer Jew or Greek or Slave or Free or Male or Female — all were equally accepted. However, this idea was controversial among other Jews.

At the same time that there were disagreements within the Jewish community, there were also tensions building within the Roman empire. Paul went to Jerusalem in around the year 60 A.D. and was immediately arrested, sent to Rome, and then executed. Others were similarly executed.

In 64 A.D., a great fire swept through Rome. Nero, looking for a scapegoat, blamed the fire on the followers of Jesus — giving the group attention, but also setting them up for persecution.

In the aftermath of the fire, Nero built his grand imperial palace (the Domus Aurea that we explored in the context of Roman wall painting). Recall the large, octagonal, ceremonial dining room.

However, Nero was so flamboyant and so outrageous that he was forced to commit suicide in 68 A.D. With the end of his reign came the end of the dynasty which began with Caesar Augustus (Julio-Claudian dynasty).

Procession of the imperial family -- Detail on the South Side

Augustus of Prima Porta, ca. 14 A.D.